The Rise of the Military
The Samurai Legacy
- The Meiji Restoration caused the Samurai's to lose their relevance in the terms of military positions
- They became symbolic figures or landowners
- Before the Meiji Restoration, there was a traditional class system - Society was divided between ruling Samurai aristocracy and commoners
- Traditionally, the difference between the Samurai class and the peasants was the fact that the Samurai had the right to bear arms
- This right was extended to any man in the nation after the restoration
The Legacy of the Meiji Constitution
- The Meiji Revolution brought domestic, social and political reforms
- The Meiji Constitution held influences from the German-Prussian empire
- The Emperor had 'supreme command of the Army and Navy', he could 'declare war, make peace and conclude treaties.' - Didn't answer to the government, only followed the Emperor's direction
- 'Japanese subjects may... be appointed to civil or military or any other public offices equally', obligations - Serving the military, attending school and paying tax
- 1881 Japan sent military advisors to help modernise the Korean Army, led by King Kojong
- 1894 - 1895 Sino-Japanese War - Japanese military sent 8,000 troops to Korea stating that they were 'protecting Japanese residents'
- April 1895 Japan defeated China and gained control of ports, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula and the Southern Manchurian Railways - Political and economic value
- Taiwan was resistant towards becoming a colony - 4,600 Japanese soldiers died in combat
- Western influence - Expanding in trade, land investments and expanding in geopolitics
- 1905 Russo-Japanese War
- Industrialisation of the country led to a rise in military power, 'enrich the country, strengthen the military', 'rich country, strong army'
- 1873 All men over the age of 21 had to join the Army and serve for four years in the armed forces and three years as a reserve
- 1889 Emperor Hirohito, 'a document that neither guided the exercise of power nor protected the limited freedoms and rights of Japanese subjects'
1928 The Assassination of Zhang Zuolin - Kwantung Army Insubordination
- June 4th 1928 Assassination of Zhang Zuolin
- The Tanaka Cabinet aided Zhang in the hope he would accept Japan's presence in Manchuria
- The Tanaka Cabinet and Zhang had a common enemy - Chiang Kaishek
- A skeptical and unstable alliance formed between the Chinese and Japanese
- Colonel Komoto Daisaku (Senior staff officer of the Kwantung Army) plotted and carried out the assassination of Zhang
- Colonel Komoto was angered and wasn't able to stop the advancement of the Nationalists and planted a bomb to explode Zhang's private railcar
- The Japanese claimed that the Chinese were responsible for this bomb which, killed three Chinese men
- The Tokyo government was shocked but refused to take military or political advantage
- The press was censored to prevent the assassination being read about in the news
- The assassination news was leaked and ruined the Tanaka Cabinet - Resigned a year later
- Colonel Komoto along with his Kwantung Army assumed that Zhang's power base in Manchuria would crumble and that his son Zhang Xueliang wasn't a power threat
- Within six months of the bombing, Zhang Xueliang announced his allegiance to Chiang Kaishek and the Nationalists
- The Meiji Constitution stated that the military had 'independence of the Supreme Command' - Neither the Diet or the cabinet had authority over the military, only answered to the Emperor
- 1925 Army suffered four divisions - A cut of 35,000 men, budget cuts as well
- Japanese locals were frustrated by the military cuts
- War Minister Ugaki Kazushige introduced compulsory military training for all students from middle school up and reorganised the reservist units from factories and local villages to increase military despite cuts
- Japan was seen as a hothouse environment for military growth joined with the events in China
Weaknesses of the Civilian Government vs. The Military Wing of Government
Strengths of the Military Wing of Government
Weaknesses of the Civilian Government
Strengths of the Military Wing of Government
- Attitude of superiority was present among the military which, contributed to the increasing independence of the military
- Showa Restoration attempt incidents had negative effects upon the civilian government - Not successful, weakened the government in a significant way
- The Showa Restoration made the military even more powerful and stronger internally
- The military had the ability to conduct political assassinations where the civilian government had no control
- The Manchurian Incident showed that the civilian government barely had any control over the military
- Marked a period where the military was able to interfere in politics
- Military had increasing influence over internal politics as well as effective control of foreign policy
- Rivalry between two factions of the military - The 'Imperial War' (IWF) Faction and the 'Control' Faction (CF)
- The IWF believed in direct action to remove corruption in an effort to establish direct and imperial rule
- The CF believed in mobilising Japan through technological and economical means for total war
- Exclusion Act - Showed that the civilian government had little control over foreign policy
- Disrupted the Japanese's sense of pride and ultra-nationalism - Had the feeling that they were being rejected by the West and turned their support to the military in an effort to save their national interest
Weaknesses of the Civilian Government
- The government under President Saito Makoto worried about lack of national order, the cabinet consisted of incompetent political parties, bureaucracy and the military
- The cabinet endorsed the Army insubordination in Manchuria - recognised as Manchukuo
- No open disagreements with the military
- The civilian government faced social, economical and security instabilities - Developed extreme nationalist sentiment
- Taisho period + 1923 Great Kanto Earthquake - Rise in social movement
- Government was eager to repress radicalism and prevented Japan from having a representative government
1929 Prime Ministers Onwards (any patterns?)
Osachi Hamaguchi
Wakatsuki Reijiro
Inukai Tsuyoshi
Saito Makato
Keisuke Okada
Koki Hirota
Osachi Hamaguchi
- 1929 - 1931
- Favoured domestic economic reform over military action
- Cut military spending
- Economic reform failed
- Right-Wing people were furious
Wakatsuki Reijiro
- 1931
- Couldn't control the Army
- Economic crisis undermined him and forced him out
Inukai Tsuyoshi
- 1931 - 1932
- Tried to boost the economy
- Was under pressure from the Army to put more troops in Manchuria
- Lost control of the military
- Assassinated by eleven Navy Officers
- Marked the end of civilian political control until after WWII
Saito Makato
- 1932 - 1934
- Put in power by the military
- One of the longest serving Prime Ministers of the inter-war period
- Forced to resign after bribery controversy
- Heavy military ties
Keisuke Okada
- 1934 - 1936
- Military man
- Admiral in the Navy
Koki Hirota
- 1936 - 1937
- Placated the military
- Only active military men could serve in the cabinet, reduced military power in Japan
- Executed for WWII war crimes
The Manchurian Incident
- September 18th 1931
- Lieutenant Suemori Kawamoto was reminiscent of Zhang and got field grade officers of the Kwantung Army to explode a bomb
- This bomb destroyed a section of the South Manchurian Railway
- Zhang Xueliang had confined his 10,000 Chinese soldiers to their barracks to avoid confrontation - The Japanese still blamed them and within hours the Kwantung Army had opened fire on the barracks
- Senior Japanese staff ordered a takeover and acted independently from the Chinese government
- The Japanese commander in Korea sent reinforcements - Effective actions
- Chiang Kaishek decided that he couldn't send anymore resources and ordered Zhang Xueliang not to put up and resistance
- Kwantung Army controlled most of Manchuria - The military believed that only the Japanese military could understand the gravity of Japan's interests in Manchuria, thought that the civilian government was ignorant
- Kwantung Army Commander-in-Chief Honjo Shigeru urged for military occupation in Manchuria - Couldn't reign to the military
- War Minister Minami Jiro sent Major General Yoshitsugo Tatekawa to assert control in Manchuria (spent the night with Geisha girls instead)
- Civilian government was now seen as powerless
- Army continued to ignore the cabinet's instructions despite the Emperor backing up the cabinet
- The Kwantung Army leaders rallied against the advisors to the throne - Had the support of the public
- Cabinet decided that the Emperor should refrain from commenting on the issue - Army had won, cabinet couldn't face their loss, explained how the international community was a situation in which they had no role
- For the next fifteen years the military controlled foreign policy
- Manchuria - 'A source of raw materials... treasure house... a base for the development of heavy industry'
- The United Nations declared that all Japanese troops should leave Manchuria by November 1931 - The Japanese ignored this
- Early 1932 The Kwantung Army set plans to establish a government in Manchuria
- Economic depression - The public didn't want peace
- The Kwantung Army relied on Aishingioro Puyi, the deposed Emperor of China - First President of the new state (establish on 1st Match 1932)
- Puyi - Emperor of Manchukuo - Puppet Emperor
- October 1932 Lytton Report denounced Japan's actions in Manchuria - Denied that the Army was acting in self-defence, independence wasn't the result of local action, order Japan to withdraw forces
- 1934 The Kwantung Army controlled four Chinese provinces - Population of 30 million
- Japan controlled Manchuria, Taiwan and Korea
- Military argued over which was the main threat China or the Soviet Union
Establishment of Manchuria
- March 1st 1932 - Japanese puppet state Manchukuo was established - Kwantung Army of Japan invaded Manchuria after the Mukden Incident
- Occupation of Manchukuo lasted until the end of WWII
- Puyi was enthroned as Emperor of Manchukuo
- September 1932 Prime Minister Saito Makoto extended diplomatic recognition to Manchukuo
Showa Restoration Attempts
- Serious and influential ultra-nationalists served in the military - Held their power to act upon their views and beliefs
- Kita Ikki - Important figure in the philosophical development of Japanese ultra-nationalism, had impact within the military
- Originally advocated for the idea that Japanese deserved a leading role within Asia
- Followed by advocating a return to direct imperial rule
- Envisioned a coup d'etat to overthrow the bureaucrats and politicians who stood in the way of the Emperor
- 1923 Kita Ikki wrote the 'Outline Plan for the Reorganisation of Japan' - Called to overthrow the current government system
- Members of the military went through assassination sprees in an attempt to get rid of corruption and to pave the way for imperial ruling men
- These incidents combined had significant negative impacts upon the civilians government
- Showa Restoration attempt had failed - Military took advantage of the February Incident of 1936 to remove factions within the Army and purged the Kodo faction
- Military had veto power of the cabinet on any decision
- Tosei - Dominated the military
Anti-Comintern Pact - Japan-Germany 1936
- June 1935 Anglo-German Naval Agreement between Germany and the UK - Isolating the USSR, Hitler's attempt to improve relations
- Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto was shocked during the Naval Agreement - Military concluded that the agreement was a ruse to allow that Nazi's time to build their Navy
- Cominterm - The Third International communist party (Russian)
- Foreign Minister, Hirota, had tried to imrpove Sino-Japanese relationships - Effort was aimed at paving the way for a more solid Japanese presence in China
- Hirota believed that Japan's most serious security challenge was the Soviet Union - Primary threat
- 25th November 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact - Anti-Communist pact
- Committed Germany and Japan to exchange information about Comintern and work to limit its effects, 'to safeguard their common interest'
- Symbolised the union of the Axis Power - Japan and Germany (1937 Italy joined)
- Article 1: The High Contracting States agree that they will mutually keep each other informed concerning the activities of the Communist International, will confer upon the necessary measure of defence, and will carry out such measures in close co-operation
- Possibly use of military forces, believed that Communism would threaten 'the general pace of the world'
- Anti-Comintern made Japan, Germany and Italy brought in Nazi ideologues who gained many Japanese supported and injected a Nazi-styled anti-Semitic arguments into the mainstream public - Defamation of Jews
- All Japanese governments manipulated the image of Jews to strengthen domestic ideological conformity