The Japanese Constitution 1889
Questions + Answers
What do you think the Following Terms/Articles Mean?
How Many Times is the Word Emperor Included in the Document?
25 times. This conveys how superior the Emperor was considered to be in Meiji culture and how much respect the expected the public to have for their Emperor. Emperor had all the power and yet he wasn't meant to use it.
Now read pages 4 and 5 again from Hanneman’s Japan Faces the World 1925-52
then draw a simple diagrammatic perspective of the new constitution
The perspective based around the Meiji Constitution, is fairly confusing. The constitution revolves mainly around the Emperor of Japan and giving him control of both the Army and Navy. However, it was known by tradition (between the Emperor and Meiji leaders), that the Emperor wouldn't act alone on his decisions despite what the constitution stated. This therefore, poses the question of who was really in control of the Meiji era if the Army and Navy only had to answer the requests of an Emperor who wasn't really meant to explore, use his power.
The new Meiji perspective on Japan, also conveys how the Japan wanted to be independent and free. Japan wanted to draw inspiration from the West, and use it to build and even more civilised and industrialised version of it. This would help Japan to reach the Meiji aim of 'Rich Country, strong army.' Overall, Japan wanted to reach international status of being a Capitalist country with a powerful army.
What were the limitations of the new constitution?
The Constitution wasn't very Democratic as The Emperor had full control of everything that went on in Japan. There were no true votes or elections to determine who the Emperor would be or for who would be a part of the Diet.
Read pages 3-8 again.
What other reforms took place after 1868? (Make notes- bullet points)
To modernise and industrialise Japan so that it became a rich country that didn't need to rely on other countries.Have a nation with a richer education to become intellectually wealthier have entrepreneurs and businessmen. Needed to be rich in multiple aspects.
To have a powerful Army that was an emulation of a Western styled Army. If they wanted to be like the West, the needed to have a powerful Army like the West. Gain more resources also form a buffer zone and protection from the rest of the world. Japanese believed that they were superior to the West.
Why was Japan so keen to emulate the west yet be prepared to act in its own nationalistic way?
The West were very successful when it came to Nationalising its country and making it very Capitalist. This was very idealistic to the Meiji and therefore not only did they want to be like the West they wanted to be even better. The Meiji wanted to show the world Japanese strength.
Write down a list of 10 words which describe Japan 1868-1905.
Notes from Jansen Chapter 14 Meiji Culture Part 1
1. Restore Antiquity!
2. Civilisation and Enlightenment! Be a Success!
Fukuzawa Yukichi
Nakamura Masanao (Keiu)
3. Christianity
Guido Verbeck
Captain Leroy L. Janes
The Meiji Revolution- Turning Japan into a modern industrial nation-“rich country, strong army”
Population Increase - Mainly in Urban and Rapidly Industrialising Areas
Questions + Answers
What do you think the Following Terms/Articles Mean?
- Article One
- Article Three 'Sacred and inviolable'
- Article 4 'The rights of the of sovereignty'
- Article 11 'Emperor has supreme command of the Army and Navy'
- Article 12 'Emperor determines organisation and peace standing of the Army and Navy'
- Article 17 'The Regent'
How Many Times is the Word Emperor Included in the Document?
25 times. This conveys how superior the Emperor was considered to be in Meiji culture and how much respect the expected the public to have for their Emperor. Emperor had all the power and yet he wasn't meant to use it.
Now read pages 4 and 5 again from Hanneman’s Japan Faces the World 1925-52
then draw a simple diagrammatic perspective of the new constitution
The perspective based around the Meiji Constitution, is fairly confusing. The constitution revolves mainly around the Emperor of Japan and giving him control of both the Army and Navy. However, it was known by tradition (between the Emperor and Meiji leaders), that the Emperor wouldn't act alone on his decisions despite what the constitution stated. This therefore, poses the question of who was really in control of the Meiji era if the Army and Navy only had to answer the requests of an Emperor who wasn't really meant to explore, use his power.
The new Meiji perspective on Japan, also conveys how the Japan wanted to be independent and free. Japan wanted to draw inspiration from the West, and use it to build and even more civilised and industrialised version of it. This would help Japan to reach the Meiji aim of 'Rich Country, strong army.' Overall, Japan wanted to reach international status of being a Capitalist country with a powerful army.
What were the limitations of the new constitution?
- Absence of a proper Democratic government
- Emperor had control of everything (Empire, Army, Navy) - Dictatorship?
- Only a man could rule
- Only the Emperor can sanction laws
- In an emergency, the Emperor can pass laws without needing the Diet
The Constitution wasn't very Democratic as The Emperor had full control of everything that went on in Japan. There were no true votes or elections to determine who the Emperor would be or for who would be a part of the Diet.
Read pages 3-8 again.
What other reforms took place after 1868? (Make notes- bullet points)
- Land Reform - Gave peasants titles to the land they worked on
- Tax System - Now payable in money
- Mandatory Education - Compulsory for for four year for both boys and girls
- New Banking System - Low-interest loans were now available to entrepreneurs
To modernise and industrialise Japan so that it became a rich country that didn't need to rely on other countries.Have a nation with a richer education to become intellectually wealthier have entrepreneurs and businessmen. Needed to be rich in multiple aspects.
To have a powerful Army that was an emulation of a Western styled Army. If they wanted to be like the West, the needed to have a powerful Army like the West. Gain more resources also form a buffer zone and protection from the rest of the world. Japanese believed that they were superior to the West.
Why was Japan so keen to emulate the west yet be prepared to act in its own nationalistic way?
The West were very successful when it came to Nationalising its country and making it very Capitalist. This was very idealistic to the Meiji and therefore not only did they want to be like the West they wanted to be even better. The Meiji wanted to show the world Japanese strength.
Write down a list of 10 words which describe Japan 1868-1905.
- Modernisation
- Transformation
- Dictatorship
- Reformed
- Monarchy
- Education
- Entrepreneural
- Industrialisation
- Independence
- Emulation
- Chaotic
- Imitation
- Ambitious
- Expansionism
- Evolve
Notes from Jansen Chapter 14 Meiji Culture Part 1
1. Restore Antiquity!
- Late Tokugawa culture prepared the Meiji effort
- fukke - Restore Antiquity! - The drive to free Japanese culture of Chinese and Confucian import
- Kokugaku scholars - Kamo no Mabuchi and Motoori Norinaga found what was truly Japan
- Restoration of imperial rule and the abandonment of warrior usurpation
- Nativist scholars were already redefining Japanese culture
- The fukko movement also had other aims - Emphasis of native deities, mythology in a Bworld of nature that was sacred and restored as true and good
- Praise of antiquity - Reliance of imported culture and continent - Useful and practical without hesitation
- Nineteenth century - Foreign borrowing was justified
- Attempts to restore the institutions of antiquity and to adopt Shinto theocracy was rejected by the Meiji leaders
- Meiji leaders gained power through utilisation of the sovereign
- 1873 Uprising of 20,000 Buddhists broke out in Echizen - The leaders denounced governmental measures cutting religious reform as expressions of Christianity
- 1871 Decree by the new government to 'liberate' the suppressed class - Resulted in violence e.g protests, riots
- Now subjects to taxes and civil duties
- New authorities were not likely to be sympathetic to them
- Samurai-dominated areas required on the Warrior class to be their employees and customers
- Edo-Tokyo population dropped from 1.3 million to 600,000
2. Civilisation and Enlightenment! Be a Success!
- Trappings of antiquity were for political symbolism and ritual
- Japanese modernisation went along the Western lines and personal advancement
- Goals were expressed in slogans - Slogans expressed the reform enthusiasm and optimism of early Meiji rule
- Bunmei kaika - Civilisation and enlightenment
- Risshin Shusse - Be a success
- Japan was seen as disadvantaged and had to catch up with the rest of the world
- 'For the sake of the country' - kuni no tame
- Early Meiji decades were a period of optimism
- Intellectuals were determined to remake their society with idealism
- Japanese readers sensed continuity
- In Meiji Japan Smiles’s work related to national goals
- Japanese were happy with the aspects of enlightenment and self-improvements
- Government leaders tried to keep premodern mystery towards the throne
- Intellectuals weren’t criticised as they were working towards building a new society
- Fukuzawa - Expedition to Taiwan
- Private Academies and schools flourished in early Meiji times and many were set-up individually
- Urgency towards learning English and Western law
- Meiji were determined to make a strong name for themselves
- Christian Niijima Jō selected the old capital of Japan - Kyoto as the grounds for Dōshisha University
Fukuzawa Yukichi
- Fukuzawa Yukichi 1835 - 1901 was a major figure in the rush for self-improvement
- 1869 Introduction to Countries of the World was written by Yukichi - Arranged in metrical patterns which were recited in Buddhist catechism for schools
- The Encouragement of Learning
- 1875 Outline of a Theory of Civilisation - Showed a world-historical perspective of what was heading for modernised and industrialised Japan
- Founded the Keiō Speciality School - Established during restoration
- Influenced the news and regularly wrote and spoke of the necessity for individual responsibility
- Japanese people needed the 'spirit of civilisation'
Nakamura Masanao (Keiu)
- Also drove towards civilisation and enlightenment
- Received traditional education in Tokugawa Academies - Appointed as a Confucian Scholar
- 1866 Sent to England to study
- Enthusiast of Western learning and Christianity
- Began a private school
- Became an educator and government official
- Masanao, Fukuzawa, Mori Anori and other 'enlightened' key figures set up the Meiji Sixth Year Society - An elite group who regularly met to discuss how to modernise Japan
- Nakamura contributed by translating Samuel Smiles's Self-Help - Published as Tales of Men Who Achieved Their Aims in Western Countries
3. Christianity
- Iwakura embassy that contradicted criticism towards Japan's laws against Christianity -
- 1873 Ended the ban on the 'Western' religion
- 1965 Meiji government denied the release of Christians from prison
- 1970 continued the search for more and arrested another 3,000
- 1873 prisoners were finally released - Over 600 died in exile
- 1859 James Hepburn a Doctor and Clergyman arrived in Kanagawa
- Kumamoto Band - Had some of Japan's most intellectual, publicists and preachers
- Christian Samurai were prepared to sacrifice and suffer to enlighten Japan
- They 'banded together' in oath
- Students of the band were determined to 'serve their country' through their faith
- “The arts of philosophical defence which might have presented (the traditional Japanese viewpoint) convincingly,” John Howes
- 1876 the Japanese Government hired William S. Clark to be the head of Massachusetts Agricultural College
- Clark had a strong influence over his students - Christianity was important in Western civilisation and therefore, needed to be a part of Japan
- Sapporo School had a religious awakening
- Uchimura Kanzō founded the 'non-church' movement
- Nitobe Inazō was a Quaker educator and internationalist
- Both Kanzō and Inazō studied in America
- Kanzō turned Christian after being pressured by his friends and tried to convert his parents too
- Wrote 'How I Became Christian'
- 1880s Onwards, Japanese Christians continuously faced pressure to prove the freedom of foreign direction
- Meiji Christianity was mainly Protestant although, there was an Orthodox community - Result of Russian Father Nikoli
- Most Protestant leaders were mainly former Samurai
- 1880s Conservatism started to form
Guido Verbeck
- 1859 Dutch-American Clergyman, Guido Verbeck arrived in Nagasaki - Illegal to be a missionary but he still ministered the needs of the foreign community
- In Nagasaki Verbeck had the chance to work with the Samurai - Studied English
- Iwakura embassy worked a lot with Verbeck as he suggested many ideas to tech such as, the formation of an overseas embassy
Captain Leroy L. Janes
- Civil War Officer
- Recruited by Verbeck
- 1871 Arrived in Japan
- Supplied with a Western-styled house
- Put in charge of a group of Samurai
- Taught them religion, maths, science
The Meiji Revolution- Turning Japan into a modern industrial nation-“rich country, strong army”
- Military Reform- Old daimyo had samurai fighting for individual domains. Lack of unity in Japan. Outdated warrior methods.
- 1872 Imperial Army - Farmers and peasants included
- They needed Samurai’s to join however, some were reluctant to
- 1873 All males under the age of 20 were obligated to be with the Army for three years in active service and four years on reserve status
- Patriotism and Nationalism were not enough the enthuse people to fight
- 1877 Key battle - Large Samurai rebellion was defeated by the new Imperial Army
- Economic privileges were taken away from the Samurai’s - Felt betrayed by Meiji reforms
- Samurai were abolished and many became commoners
- The right to were a sword was now only for soldiers and policemen
- Many Samurai were still educated and ambitious - Succeeded in business, many joined political movements on behalf of the parliament and constitution
- Mid-1890s Japan’s military was strong enough to move on and impose Japan’s will overseas
- Legacy of the Samurai - Held up the philosophy of Bushido
- 1904 - 1905 Russo-Japanese War - Changed the balance of power in Asia
- 1910 Korea
Population Increase - Mainly in Urban and Rapidly Industrialising Areas
Increasing Revenue
Political Changes
Bicameral Diet Introduced
Compulsory Education
Civil Service Examinations
Popular Press
Industrialisation
Culture Borrowing
Political Parties
Diet Politics
Nationalist Movement
Gordon
Pages 130 - 152
The Era of Popular Protest
What was the Taisho Crisis?
1912 - 1913 Political problems faced by the new Emperor Yoshihito who was succeeding his father. Crisis was initially started by Saionji Kinmochi who tried to cut the the military budget, this caused the minister of the army to resign from his post. The minister's resignation, brought down the Seiyūkai Party. Both Yamagata Artiomo and Saionji refused to resume office.
The refusal to resume office, brought riots and protests to the street. There was public outrage towards the manipulation of the army and a demanded recall for Katsura Tarō for a third term. There were also demands for an end to genro rule.
- New Tax system - Destruction of old domains and introduction of new bureaucratic system
- Revenue became predictable and based around the market value of all the land owned
- Taxes were raised and helped form the basis of the Capitalist industry economy
- A uniform currency was established
- Railroads were built
- Many Samurai were given stipends or pensions by new authorities
Political Changes
- Suffrage
- Only 1% of the population had the right to vote - Only men who had paid annual taxes for of 15 yen or more
- Meiji Constitution gave the military the right to direct access to the Emperor
Bicameral Diet Introduced
- Put the Emperor in the heart of political order
- Government held a very symbolic weight over the Emperor and Empress
- Imperial institution linked to communities of families, the workplace and neighbourhoods
- Meiji didn’t agree with Democracy - Parliaments should be divided into institutions not a unity
- Tokugawa ‘Peasants should be either dead nor alive'
- The politically elite wanted to indoctrinate the public with the symbol of the Emperor
Compulsory Education
- Four years for all children
- Image of the Emperor enshrined in each classroom
- Also Confucian ideals - Firstly for individuals then the Emperor
- Attendance was less that 50% in the first decade
- 1905 most boys and girls attended school
Civil Service Examinations
- Performance which was the main qualification for service in the prestigious ranks of the ministries of the Japanese Imperial State
Popular Press
- Newspapers spread ideas of democracy and peoples’ rights
- Popular movements had the hand of the elite in the upcoming constitution
- 200 political societies formed and most members were farmers and Samurai in the countryside
- Women were not initially allowed to join political organisations
Industrialisation
- Government encouraged private investments and former high-ranking Samurai to combine their pensions and invest in the railroads
- This investment formed the modern stock market - Responsible for Japan’s rise in the world
- Also had links to the government and therefore had political influence
Culture Borrowing
- Xenophobia to xenophile
- Westernisation
- Photos of the Emperor
- Government in Western clothing
- Adopting Western practices - Cutting hair, ballroom dancing, eating beef
- Iwakura Mission - Japanese politicians went out and studied how everything was done in Europe and in the West - Constitutions, laws, finance, trade, industry, military organisation
- Japanese needed to bring their legal and political systems to European levels
Political Parties
- The Liberal Party - Jiyuto
- 1881 Formed
- Idea of sovereignty and a conventional constitution
- 1884 collapsed
- The Progressive Party - Kaishinto
- 1882 Formed
- Strong support from the new business elite
- 1884 Collapsed
- Genyosha
- 1880’s Member tried to assassinate a leader
Diet Politics
- Association of political friends - Seiyukai - Set-up by Ito Hirobumi more of a liberal politician in comparison to his rival Yamagato Aritomo
- Ito had the support of the lower House of Representatives
- Aritomo had the support of the House of Peers, local government and the military
- Diet had the tacit of the two groups should co-exist
- Katsure - Arito's Deputy and Saionji - Ito's Deputy took turns to be the Prime Minister
- Major political figure - Hara Kei was a skilful politician and was Saionji's deputy
- Kei targeted the support of men of meritocracy and bureaucrats who aspired to for jobs in government administration
- 1912 Seiyukai controlled the lower House of the Diet
- 1916 Forced other groups to form anti-Seiyukai groups - Constitutional Association or Kenseikai
- Kei was willing to work with the House of Peers and Privy Council if it meant promotions for himself or party members to cabinet posts (Ministers)
- Signs of corruption were ignored
- Socialist thought was compressed
- Seiyukai was afraid that issues such as, universal suffrage could change his position in the Diet
- 1926 Year in which, Seiyukai lost power
Nationalist Movement
- Success against China, Russia and Korea helped the Nationalist movement in Japan
- Japan was aware of the Western racism it received for military tactics
- 'Patriotic societies' evolved from early Meiji days
- Genyosha had a group member who threw a bomb at a minister and was angry about the tardiness for 'unequal treaties'
- Genyosha member committed suicide
- 1901 formation of Black Dragon Society - Founded by Imperial loyalist, Uchida Ryohei
- 1923 Kita Ikki published An Outline Plan for the Reorganisation of Japan - Shared imperialism and called on young military officers and civilians to seize power, suspend the constitution and remove all political structure - Unite the people with their Emperor. Martial law would then takeover
- Other groups formed with similar beliefs to Kita and the anti-party movement
- Some groups advocated for anarchy and an equal society
- Some groups were set-up with concerns for the economy, religious aspects or political issues
- 1919 Japan National Essence Society
- 1924 National Foundation Society
- Both designed to save Japan from Socialism - Both shared ideas of the Japanese Mission as well as Belief in Japan's leadership is Asia and resistance towards the West
- 1922 Japanese Communist Party helped by Cominterm
- Taisho Democracy was attacked and collapsed from ultra-Nationalist groups, may politicans attacked
Gordon
Pages 130 - 152
- Katsura realised that he needed support within the Diet - Needed the support of the Nationalistic representatives
- 1912 Rikken Dōshikai new Katsure party - Only eighty-free members joined
- Emperor interfered and got Saionji to cooperate
- Katsura failed to the Emperor to influence a partisan in political battle
- Crowds outside the diet expected Katsura to resign from - Diet wouldn't convene that day and riots broke out
- Katsura resigned
- Yamamoto Gonnohyōe replaced him in his cabinet
The Era of Popular Protest
- Riots marked the Taishō political crisis to help explain why Hara accepted a compromise betrayed the hopes of the 'constitutional government'
- Hara insisted that landlords and business leaders deserved a political voice through his Seiyūkai party
- 1905 - 1918 Eight similar riots to the Taisho Crisis occurred
- 1905 Riot - Came after the treaty that announced the Russo-Japanese War - War was eight times more expensive than the Sino-Japanese War
- 60,000 died in battle and 20,000 died of disease - Four times the toll of the Sino-Japanese War
- Peace settlement didn't promise indemnity or territorial gains despite what the government and press had said
- Dietmen formed groups to show their opposition towards the treaty
- September 5th 1905 Rally at Hibiya Park in Tokyo - Police forbade the riot but it went on anyways, people gathered, speeches were made and there was a plan to launch a three-day riot
- 17 rioters died in Tokyo, 70% of the city's police substations were destroyed
- Hibiya riot was a very scary event in the eyes of the bureaucratic and military rulers
- For the first time, the Diet was now willing to listen to these usually unheard voices
- 1912 - 1913 Rallies
- 1913 - 1914 Rallies
- Interest in Western Socialism, more translated texts into Japanese
What was the Taisho Crisis?
1912 - 1913 Political problems faced by the new Emperor Yoshihito who was succeeding his father. Crisis was initially started by Saionji Kinmochi who tried to cut the the military budget, this caused the minister of the army to resign from his post. The minister's resignation, brought down the Seiyūkai Party. Both Yamagata Artiomo and Saionji refused to resume office.
The refusal to resume office, brought riots and protests to the street. There was public outrage towards the manipulation of the army and a demanded recall for Katsura Tarō for a third term. There were also demands for an end to genro rule.
- Military manipulation
- New Emperor - Weak
- Political instability
- Education - Ultra-nationalism
- National building projects
- Budget cuts
- Civil disorder
- Overseas activities - Korea
- Riots